Though many definitions of witchcraft exist, for the purposes of this essay I define it as the practice of nature-based magic or earth magic.   I will also define those who practice this form this form of magic as witches.  Based on these definitions, it can be argued using that witches are not pagans because they do not worship nature; they just know how to manipulate it.  Also we must recognize that not everyone who practices magic is a witch because there are many forms of magic other than earth magic. 

The belief in magic has been around since the mists of time.  As mankind saw their interconnectedness with nature, there would be those that would seek out how they might manipulate the energies of nature to their benefit.   Magic has been used in attempts to heal or harm others, to influence the weather or crops, and as part of religious practices. This belief is present in the Egyptian pyramid texts and the Indian Vedas, specifically the Atharvaveda ("knowledge of magic formulas"), which contains a number of charms, sacrifices, hymns, and uses of herbs.  Witches are mentioned in the Old and New Testament, though the term “witch” might have been used loosely to describe many different types of magic users.  The ancient Greek and Egyptian mystery religions had strong magical components.  In Europe, the Celts spread their magical traditions which consisted of the creation of potions and ointments, spell casting, as well as other works of magic.

The “witch” in ancient history might have been the "wise" or "cunning" man or woman in the rural towns and villages that was viewed by the community as having a special understanding of the way that nature operated and therefore knew how to manipulate it.  This witch might have had knowledge of medicinal herbs and other natural elements gained from a lifetime of experience or inherited knowledge. Sometimes these witches would be looked upon by their community as "good witches" and their skills would be admired and sought after.  However, if their relationships with their neighbors turned sour, these "wise folk" might be accused of being "bad witches.”     Women might have been more inclined to concentrate on magic that would more directly benefited by her family such as healing, fertility, or protection.  In a society where women did most of the cooking they would be more knowledgeable on the various plants and their effects.

It was natural as the city-state grew; some of the magical practices would have been ritualized, institutionalized, formalized, and expanded upon as mankind became more “civilized.”  These new magical practices have been labeled as high-magic or ritual magic as opposed to low-magic or earth magic.  Though some elements of high magick would have been adopted by witches, the witch generally practice low magic. 

The largest threat to the survival of witchcraft was the Christian church. In the beginning of Europe's conversion to Christianity, magic coexisted with Christian theology for much of the early Middle Ages.  Many magical practices were just transformed to Christian rites and formulas.  By the fifteenth century however, magical rites and beliefs were considered heresy.  Those who practiced magic outside the dominion of the church were usually labeled as witches and were considered agents of the devil who wanted to destroy the Church and work evil upon God's people.  During the 14th through the 18th centuries, a campaign was conducted throughout Europe by both secular and non-secular institutions to eradicate all competing belief systems to Christianity.  

In his Bull of December 9, 1484, Pope Innocent VIII turned the Inquisition full force against witches in Germany.  Two years later, Dominican Inquisitors, Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Springer published the Maleus Maleficarim (literally translating into the Witch Hammer) with set forth rules for identifying and punishing witches.  The book is based on the Biblical pronouncement in Exodus 22:18, “Thou shall not suffer a witch to live.”  The inquisition focused mainly on women because traditional Judeo-Christian beliefs hold women accountable for sin.  The Maleus Maleficarum stated that, “ all witchcraft comes from carnal lust, which in women is insatiable.”  It went on to state that women were “feeble-brained,” “intellectually like children,” “weak in body, impressionable, lustful, have weak memories and are liars by nature” therefore, “chiefly addicted to Evil Superstitions.”   It accused women as the most susceptible to being witches and stated that witches committed infanticide; cannibalism, cast evil spells to harm their enemies, and had the power to steal men’s penises.  Often the women accused of witchcraft were social outcasts, usually spinsters and widows. Generally older and less attractive, therefore of no use to the men who judged them. Women had few rights during this time and no say so of their destiny. They were merely property.  Though it unknown how many people were killed during the “burning times,” estimates stem from 30,000 to 8 million. 
In 1563 Queen Elizabeth of England I signed the Witchcraft Act that anyone who should "use, practice, or exercise any Witchcraft, Enchantment, Charm, or Sorcery, whereby any person shall happen to be killed or destroyed." In 1584, Reginald Scot wrote the very controversial book Discovery of Witchcraft in which he points out that people must be in hysterics to believe in such things as witchcraft. In the 1640’s the witch-hunts reached America and lasted until around 1730. In 1735 King George II repealed the Act of James I that witchcraft was punishable by death.

This persecution forced witches to go underground and hide, but it was the Industrial Revolution and the rise of scientism that challenged their basic belief systems.   For example, germ theory challenged traditional folk explanations by stating that microorganisms were the cause of many diseases.  Other challenges included changing social structures, the divorce from agriculture and the increasing security brought by growing welfare provision and personal financial security.

The 20th Century saw a dramatic revival in interest in witches.  For example, Charles Leland, an author and folklorist, wrote of his experiences with an Italian woman named Maddalena who claimed to be a witch. Over a 10 year period she provided him with what she claimed was The Witches' Gospel.  In 1899 he published a book called Aradia; The Gospel of the Witches based upon material that Maddalena had supplied him.

In 1951, England repealed the last of the Witchcraft Acts, which had previously made it against the law to practice witchcraft in the country. After Gardner published his first non-fiction book on magic, entitled Witchcraft Today, in 1954, more books about witchcraft became available and more witches began to surfaced to include Sybil Leek and Charles Cardell. In the 1990s many British traditional witches began to use the name hedge witches to identify themselves as a solitary witch who isn't aligned to a coven and who practices herbal healing and spells.


Bibliography
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